"Taking Flight." (Part One)

With so much emphasis on the approach and landing phase of flight, the humble take-off is frequently overlooked. Often perceived as simply lining up, pushing the levers forward and pulling back when the time is right, the take off is actually a very critical phase of each and every flight. 

Surface to Air.

There is nothing quite like that moment when the earth falls away from the wheels and the earthbound restraints transition into freedom in all three dimensions. From the initial surge of power to the nose pointing skyward, guiding the aircraft back to its natural habitat, this is when flight becomes a reality. This is the take-off and for all its majesty, it is also a potentially vulnerable time for man and machine.

Like landing, it is a manoeuvre conducted at ground level where there is little time and altitude for forgiveness. It is susceptible to all manner of variables; environmental, aerodynamic and human in origin. Accordingly, like any phase of flight, the take-off should be given the respect and consideration it deserves. Attempts to rush it can at the very least result in poor handling and at worst leave the aircraft exposed to all manner of lethal variables.

Fundamentally, aircraft are not designed for ground operations, they are meant to fly. As such, designers endeavour to build an undercarriage that will sustain the impact of landing, maintain a straight line at high speed, taxi at slow speeds and offer up the lowest possible weight penalty in the process. Similarly, the wing is meant to fly and generally fly fast. The slow speed envelope is recognised as a necessary evil in transitioning the aeroplane to and from flight, so often aerodynamic devices on the leading and trailing edges are added to facilitate this. Yet on take-off, the undercarriage will be asked to absorb the shock and slipperiness of all manner of surfaces and we will reconfigure the wing so it will fly at speeds that it would really prefer not to.

At the helm sits the pilot who has hopefully both configured the aircraft correctly and considered a myriad of possible eventualities. Should the take-off go awry, decisions may need to be made in a split second and yet enacted with a seemingly unrushed, efficient methodology. As with so many aspects of aviation, the result of thorough preparation is often a routine non-event. Take-offs are no exception to this rule.

The Goal.

In its most basic form, the purpose of the take off is to transition the aircraft safely from the ground into the air. It is not to be considered purely as the instant of lift-off, for there are several components of the take-off both preceding this moment and following it. In fact, the take-off can really be considered as commencing with its planning in terms of weight and balance, performance data and the ambient conditions. Likewise, the take-off can be thought of becoming a ‘climb’ only when the aircraft is reconfigured and at a safe altitude. This may involve reducing power and the retraction of flaps and undercarriage, or simply extinguishing lights and selecting the fuel pump off; it will vary from type to type and even departure to departure.

The take-off is virtually a ‘blink’ in the overall duration of a flight, but the degree of preparation isn’t a function of time. Just ask an Olympic sprinter or world class photographer. Safely executing a take-off is a combination of consideration and physical execution and in ‘Taking Flight’, both will be treated with equal respect. However, to start, let’s review what is actually involved in taking our aircraft from the runway to the sky.

A Numbers Game.

Before the park brake is even released, the ability of the aircraft to physically perform the take-off manoeuvre must be verified. This is a function of numerous factors including aircraft weight, payload, centre of gravity, the runway environment and ambient conditions. Each of these variables plays a significant role in their own way and to overlook any aspect can be fraught with danger.

In most cases, the individual approved aircraft Flight Manual is the defining document in matters of performance. Some larger operators may have an entire approved loading system that is a stand-alone manual or in modern times, part of the Electronic Flight Bag. Whatever the means, there is always a valid method to calculate the limits of an aircraft’s performance in executing a take-off.

The take-off must be able to accelerate and climb away at a safe speed with adequate obstacle clearance in the distance available. In the case of multi-engine aircraft there will also be a need to climb away with one engine inoperative and for higher category aircraft, the ‘stop-go’ scenario, amongst others, becomes a performance dictator. Fortunately, the hard work has been done by test pilots and performance engineers when the aircraft is certified, so the preflight process is a case of arithmetical gymnastics rather than ‘trial and error’ destructive testing off the end of the runway.

Typically with most GA piston powered aeroplanes, the number of seats doesn’t directly reflect the everyday uplift of the aircraft. You may well plan to take 4 people aloft in a Piper Cherokee 140, but that will rule out anything near full fuel tanks. To this end, performance calculations often require the pilot to make do with the best legal solution. If a full load of passengers is a requirement on a cross country flight, the fuel load may need to be reduced and additional refuelling stops must be planned. It will always be a combination of aircraft weight, payload, people and fuel without exceeding any limits. If the numbers still don’t work then it might be time to consider upgrading to a larger, more powerful aeroplane to meet your needs.

Further complicating the matter is that even if the total weight to be uplifted is legal, it must also be loaded in a manner that the aircraft remains ‘balanced’. Like a see-saw, the aircraft can tend to pitch nose up or down depending on how the aircraft is loaded in relation to its centre of gravity. Too far forward and the nose may not want to lift off on take-off, too far to the rear and the nose may just keeping pitching skyward after rotation until the aircraft stalls. To avoid the imbalance of an aircraft leading to disastrous controllability issues, a graphical representation or tabular calculation of the limits fore and aft is used. Calculations of load distribution must have the weight and balance of the aeroplane falling within the safe region known as the Centre of Gravity ‘envelope’. Bearing in mind that this position may also change enroute as fuel is burned.

So your aircraft is loaded to below its maximum limit with fuel, folks and freight distributed in a balanced manner. The next piece of the puzzle relates to the runway environment. Is it long enough? Is the surface long, wet grass which will impede acceleration? Is it sloping uphill? What is the current temperature and prevailing winds? These considerations must also be assessed when using the performance charts to verify that the available runway is ample and suitable for take-off.

Only when the aircraft performance data has been calculated with respect to weight and balance and airfield limitations can a take-off be legally and safely executed. Accident investigations are littered with instances where pilots either overlooked or chose to ignore the performance envelopes of their aircraft. Take the time to do the numbers and peace of mind will inevitably follow.

Ready?.............

Check back here soon for "Taking Flight" (Part Two).

"Going Solo!"

If you look closely at the photo above, you’ll see a small lad peering over the cockpit’s edge. Leather helmet and goggles still in place, he had just been aloft when his equally excited father snapped this image. For me, it is one of my favourite photos as it captures the collision between the joy of flight and the unharnessed enthusiasm of youth. But there is even more to this picture than a wonderful moment frozen in time, for that small boy now stands well over six feet tall and his world has changed forever.

Yesterday as I sat in the airport lounge waiting for my aeroplane to arrive, my phone buzzed into life and a simple message brought a huge grin to my face. “I’ve gone solo!” That message came from Alex, the young boy in the front cockpit of the Tiger Moth; only he is not a young boy now. In fact he towers over me at more than six feet and possesses a quiet maturity of someone many years older. He is no longer a young kid with stars in his eyes, but a young man with his sights firmly set on the skies and yesterday took his first major step on a long and exciting journey.

His dream of flight has not been a whim, but a slow-cooking desire in a quiet casing. Yet, despite his ever-present interest in aviation, the dream often seemed to be just too far out of reach as the harsh reality of dollars and cents surfaced to spoil the fun. And still he never gave up. Through university and second jobs his passion for flight simmered until this year he took a huge step an applied for an airline pilot cadet scheme. In fact, his was through the first stage of interviews before Alex even told his parents. His Dad is one of my best friends and knew that for Alex to have started these wheels in motion, it must truly be his dream. Without hesitation his parents supported Alex’s aspirations even though he was midway through a law degree. He excitedly brought his Dad, Mark, up to speed on the whole process, but to say it had come out of ‘left field’ is probably an understatement.

Now, only a matter of weeks later, Alex has flown an aeroplane solo for the first time. That little kid who listened intently every time I spoke about aeroplanes and jumped in the other seat every time I offered him a flight is now the ‘Pilot-in-Command’ in his own right. It's amazing. Even more inspiring is what his Dad describes as the “joy in his voice” that he heard over the long distance phone line from western New South Wales. The thought that Alex is pursuing his passion as much as following a career path is a sentiment that should inspire every youngster that dreams of flight.

For my part, it takes me back to my first solo on a still morning thirty years ago; the anticipation, the excitement, the realisation of being alone up there and then the absolute ‘scream at the top of your lungs’ happiness when the propeller stops and you realise that you’ve actually done it. For that, I thank Alex as he has let this old pilot walk in a set of young shoes again; if only for a moment. And for all pilots, of all levels, that moment is something that will be with them forever. “First Solo” is a flight that will not fade like the ink in the log book as the hours pile up over the decades. It is a point in time where the dream became real and self doubt was left at the runway’s edge with the nervous instructor as he watched his prodigy take to the skies.

To all the pilots, to all the instructors and to all the Mums and Dads, thank you. That ‘first solo’ is a day that will be there forever, stamped in the mind and the log book in indelible ink. Wherever the road takes you, nothing can take that from you. Congratulations Alex. The sky is no longer the limit; now it’s your home.

Young Alex at the controls.

What's your "First Solo" story? Post it here in the comments.

"Well Chosen Words." (Part Two)

CLICK HERE for Part One.

Say What? (continued)

......Last, but by no means least, comes the consideration of emergency contingencies. This may include an engine failure on the runway, or after take-off. What landing options lie ahead should the need arise and at what point and height does a return to land at the airfield become a possibility? Significantly, what are the vital actions and critical airspeed to maintain in this situation? Discussing the emergency situation lastly leaves those key points freshest in your mind should the added pressure of a problem arise. Obviously, the emergency plan will vary depending on such factors as the number of remaining engines in the case of a failure and the weather in the area. Hence, look at your plan realistically.

At the other end of the flight, the descent and approach phase is worth briefing and again it is best to follow a relevant order. Ideally, such a brief should be completed well in advance of commencing the descent. Start with the potential threats for the descent and in the terminal area. Terrain is always worth considering as a threat when you’re descending towards it. Review the ATIS, QNH and prevailing weather conditions as this will also provide some insight into the conditions you are likely to be confronted with. Review the descent profile in terms minimum safe altitudes and circuit joining procedures, before considering the approach to land. Revisit the flap setting to be used, the approach speed, the runway length available and where you anticipate turning off to taxi to the parking area. Importantly, examine the go-around situation. How will it be flown, what fuel will be remaining and what options are available in the event of a missed approach? What's my fuel status and options should I 'go-around'? Flying the missed approach should be thought of in terms of the actual aircraft handling as well as the flight path to be flown. With top of descent to the potential missed approach covered, pilot and aircraft are prepared to start heading down and reunite with the runway ahead.

Multi-engine aircraft and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) offer more variables. On take-off, you are not likely to make a visual return to land if the cloud base is 200 feet above ground level, so setting up the navaids and having the relevant approach plate at the ready may be prudent in this instance. However, there is no need to brief this approach at this time. Conversely, when considering an instrument approach prior to descent, it is very relevant to thoroughly brief the approach and airfield lighting as well as confirming the readiness of the navigation aids. The weather at the minima also obviously plays a critical role in IFR and should be assessed to give some indication of what will be seen should ‘visual reference’ be attained right at the minima. For instance, in a strong crosswind and lowered visibility, looking straight ahead might lead to not sighting the runway which is now relatively offset.

Regardless, of the relative simplicity or complexity of the operation, the briefing should remain practical, ordered and relevant to the phase of flight. Many commercial flight providers will define the content of the briefing in their ‘Standard Operating Procedures’, but for the individual, the choice remains in their hands.

Speak Up.

As a point of technique, briefings should be spoken out aloud. This is obvious in the multi-crew scenario as the information is there to be shared. Equally importantly, the briefing offers the opportunity for other crew members to raise questions and point out any omissions. Through an open briefing technique, all of the flight crew are able to be ‘on the same’ page and not guessing the next move of the pilot flying.

In single pilot operations, there are also definite benefits in briefing out aloud. It may seem strange at first, but the spoken word will allow the content to also be absorbed aurally and not merely through the ‘mind’s ear’. This provides another layer of consolidation to cement the details in the mind. That is not to say that the briefing needs to be yelled out, but a quiet review to oneself will serve the briefing better. When flying with passengers, obviously keep the audio level down as words like ‘engine failure’ can tend to alarm them. However, if simply taking a friend for a flight in the front seat, explain to them what you’re doing. In much the same way as you explain the emergency exits to them, reviewing your plans is a case of preparing for every situation. Passengers will often be reassured by such thoroughness, as this is in line with briefings on an airliner.

Supporting briefings, pilots may also choose to have a simple check-list to assure that they have covered the content. Additionally, there is a real benefit to be derived from ‘touch-drills’ for such manoeuvres as an engine failure after take-off. Point at the best glide speed, touch those points associated with the emergency and the flap lever in unison with your words. It is a quick but very effective means of reviewing a very critical manoeuvre. Ultimately, the technique adopted will be the one with which the pilot is most comfortable and most likely to recall from day to day. Keeping the format constant will assist in guarding against omissions, maintaining a flow and keeping it concise.

Well Chosen Words.

Briefings are a mandatory component of standard operating procedures in airline operations. However, they need not remain the domain of multi-crew flight decks, nor are the benefits limited to heavy jets. Every pilot in every cockpit stands to gain from an enhanced level of mental preparedness. Keeping the content of briefings concise, ordered and relevant will allow critical points to be refreshed in a pilot’s memory without the pressure of a critical flight phase bearing down upon them.

Briefings are a relatively simple task, which when practised will become a small but vital tool in the pilot’s kit bag. They are not a major burden upon time or resources, but in the heat of the moment a successful outcome may well result from a few well chosen words.

"Rotate!"

"Hit the Ground Running."

An Australian Army 'Blackhawk' delivers its troops on a training exercise.

"Another Day in Paradise."

It’s 3am and the rain is pelting down. Actually, to be more accurate it is thrashing the walls of my house, driven horizontally by howling winds. It’s another half an hour before I have to throw my legs over the side of the bed and make my way to work, so I just lie there and listen to Mother Nature flexing her muscles. It’s an awesome sound.

It’s a sound that has meant many different things to me over the years. As a young student pilot, each rain-drop carried a sting of disappointment as I knew that the lesson the next day was sure to be cancelled. The cloud base would be too low for stalling, or the crosswind too strong for circuits, either way it would be another frustrating day on Terra Firma. Even when the bonds of the circuit and training area had been broken, low pressure systems and developing troughs would destroy any chance of cross-country flying. If the weather was marginal, I would still venture out to the airfield and loiter around the briefing office reading the latest forecasts and bothering the ‘Met Man’ as if he could actually control the weather. Sometimes I would be there for hours waiting for the weather to lift, only to travel home tired and disappointed. If only I’d really listened to that rain on the roof the night before.

Even the day of my Commercial Licence flight test got underway five hours late because of the weather and in retrospect I was weary before the propeller ever turned. Still it was a great day that I’ll never forget. Yet even when armed with a brand new CPL, the rain was still there to spoil the fun in other ways. Those early mornings, traipsing across sodden ground in the dark, up to my ankles in water as fresh drops ran down the back of my neck. Pre-flighting the outside amidst waves of falling water, only to take half the sea inside when I opened the cockpit door. I would then slide onto a wet seat with sodden socks and the peak of my cap dripping onto my already soaked flight plan and charts. Yelling “Clear Prop” at the top of my voice to make sure no-one else was stupid enough to be out in this weather and highlight the fact that I was. With the engines started, there was a chance that the de-mister might actually clear the windscreen, even if it only really served to turn my wet socks into ice.

When I was fortunate enough to fly, I was then either dodging thunderstorms in Australia’s vast north-west, or seeing flight lessons cancelled once again, but now as the instructor. An instrument rating brought some solace, but still no certainty. There would be days flying in that thin corridor between the lowest safe altitude and the freezing level, which always seemed to get very narrow over the Great Dividing Range. Or the nights when the rain came by stealth in the form of ice, insidiously creeping along the wings and only exposed by the beam of my torch reaching beyond the cockpit. Some of those nights I was wishing that I was lying in bed listening to the rain thrash against the walls rather than buffeting me about the skies.

Even at the journeys end, the cloud maintained its mystery; how far down did it really extend? Would I be lucky tonight and see the ground first time? The lights of the land below would teasingly glow through thin breaks in the cloud before....yes...a glimpse...no...yes....that’s it....definitely yes... the runway. VISUAL!!!! And still the rain would have its last words against the windscreen while the wind seemingly pulled the world sidewards. I would then do battle with the weather one more time to tie the aeroplane down and put her to bed.

Believe it or not, I still look back on those dark wet nights with real joy and a sense of appreciation for the lessons that I learned.

Today, the world is a little different. There are two experienced pilots in air-conditioned comfort flying an aircraft with in-built redundancies of everything you can imagine. Turbines have replaced pistons and anti-icing systems that are far more effective than a torch. There are ‘Head-Up Displays’, flight management systems, RNP approaches and autopilots that actually work. Every few months there is simulator training to prepare you for the worst case scenario and every day wonderful cabin crew that feed you when their workload permits. The rain and weather are still there, but these days experience, training and technology has provided me with the best set of defences that I can hope for. Regardless of whether it’s a Beechcraft or a Boeing, it is still up to the pilot to recognise the variables that the weather inevitably brings and cater for them in the safest possible way.

It’s now 4am and I’m driving along the freeway with the wipers sweeping across my windscreen as fast as they will go. The wind is rocking the car and the steering wheel intermittently twists in my hand as the wheels strike a patch of standing water. I sit well below the speed limit and readily concede that this is the most dangerous part of my day as another numb-skull overtakes me at Mach Two. Then my memory trips back to another wet night and I’m just a boy lying in my single bed in our little fibro home in Sydney. It’s 2am and the phone has startled me from my sleep before I hear my Dad’s lowered voice. There’s the unmistakable rustling of his uniform shirt with its wings and ID card and the steps of his undoubtedly highly polished boots. He has been called out on this foul night to guide the 'Air Ambulance' to some remote township to help a stranger in need.

As the front door clicks shut, I hear him scamper through the rain to open our front gate. The rain is pelting down upon the roof and the wind is shaking the screen upon my window, but if I listen really closely, there’s another sound. It’s my father and he’s whistling. It’s 2am, it’s pouring rain, he’s about to launch into the night....and he’s whistling. My head sinks back into my pillow and I think about my Dad whistling. And then I think about his job. There must be something to this pilot stuff. I might have to give it a go one day.   

Goodnight.

"Boeing 737. The Next Generation." (Part Two)

 CLICK HERE for Part One.

 The Next Genration Development. (continued)

......The 737NG is a great all-rounder. In the context of a comparison with the Classic, there are distinct differences from a pilot’s perspective. From handling characteristics and performance to “two cup holders instead of one”, there are a myriad of differences in the newest steed from the 737 stable. Some are subtle, some are distinct, but the vast majority are improvements for the better while still meeting the ‘common type’ constraints.

The majority of pilot’s speak of the NG with admiration. Much of this stems from the re-designed wing and winglets which provides enhanced speed, range and performance. The wing is also a major player from a handling viewpoint. The NG could be described as a “straight line aeroplane” when compared to the Classic. More like its bigger brothers, the increased weight and enhanced wing of the 737NG translates to higher energy that, in turn, calls for greater planning and anticipation when decelerating. On descent the NG can easily accelerate to its upper speed limit of the ‘Barber’s Pole’ and whilst the Classic was quite at home being wheeled around the circling area and washing off speed, the NG is a more ‘slippery’ candidate and needs to be handled on descent accordingly. In terms of turbulence penetration, the Classic possesses a seemingly more rigid wing that tends to “punch through turbulence”, whilst the NGs wing is more “giving” and tends to ride the turbulence better. Again, this is a feature the NG seems to have in common with the larger aircraft from Boeing.

The enhanced performance of the NG also received high praise. In the 737-300, the 1700 nm into wind sector between Australia’s coastal capitals of Sydney and Perth was not possible whereas such sectors are not a problem for the higher powered -800. Additionally, the capability to climb directly to 41,000 feet can prove an operational bonus when performance permits, allowing that extra 4,000 feet to get above more of the weather.

Whilst cockpit ergonomics seemed to have changed little, particularly with reference to the overhead panel, the accuracy of the GPS navigation system is a significant improvement for those up the sharp end. Constantly updated, there is no tendency for the map display to ‘drift’. The outside world is reflected with precision on the cockpit presentation, which assists greatly in visual manoeuvres such as circling off the bottom of an approach. This was not the case with the older IRS driven maps.

                                              Looking through the 'Head Up Display' (HUD) of the Boeing 737-800 (S.Ruttley)

The longer fuselage of the -800 offers a potentially limiting geometry on take-off, making a ‘tail strike’ a real possibility if the rotation is too fast. Landing the newer variant is also notably different aside from the longer landing distance that is required. With the shorter winged ‘Classic’, a few knots above reference speed in the flare did not seem to alter the touchdown point significantly. Once its mind is made up to land, the spot is fairly fixed. However, the carriage of excess speed, or flaring too early in the NG can result in the wastage of significant amounts of precious runway. The enhanced wing of the NG means that the aircraft wants to keep flying and will happily float as it slowly decelerates in ground effect. For pilots flying the dual variants it is always worth self briefing this point on approach when hopping from type to type.

Walking around the NG, there seems to be only subtle visible changes to the 737 beyond the prominent winglets. It is longer, wider and with a higher fin than the Classic, but unless it is side by side with its ‘parent’ these differences are all matters of scale. However, the aircraft does sit higher than its Classic forerunner and consequently allows greater clearance for the CFM56-7 engines that are slung beneath the wings. The trademark flat-bottomed cowlings of the ‘dash 3’ CFMs are not quite so flat and lean towards more conventional round cowlings. Additionally, since January 2005, Boeing has been rolling out the 737NG without the now familiar ‘eyebrow’ windows above the crew’s main windows.

The Next Generation?

2012 sees the Boeing 737 turning 45. Even so, it is still a design seeking more efficient ways to achieve its designed tasks. This year Boeing announced improvements to engine and airframe that will equate to around 2% in fuel savings. For the passengers, Boeing have looked to the 787 and given the 737 a facelift with the ‘Boeing Sky’ interior with newer sidewalls, LED lighting and bigger overhead lockers.

The 737 also has a proven track record that defies time as all marques of this Boeing are still gracing the sky. With such a bloodline it is not surprising that the 737 Next Generation has enjoyed success in the same vein as its predecessors. With ER (Extended Range) versions giving the type even longer legs; there are very few tasks that the 737NG can’t handle.

Forged from the legacy of another tremendous domestic stalwart, the Classic, it has built upon its strengths and alleviated most of the perceived shortcomings. And with the 737 Max now looming on the horizon, It finds that irrepressible the NG family has captured that quality of so many Boeing aircraft; a workhorse for the airline and a loved stallion by its crews.

"A Century of Posts!"

Hi All,

It almost slipped past me, but yesterday marked 100 posts on this aviation blog.

In three months the amount of visitors has steadily grown from around one thousand in December to nearly ten thousand last month. I don't know how that rates in the world of the internet, but it is enough interest to indicate to me that I should keep writing and sharing my photos from 'upstairs'.

As many visitors are new to the blog, they may have missed some of the earlier posts, so I recommend that you stay a while and look back to the posts from when it all began. The 'Practical Pilot' series and airline insights continue to be very popular, but the reflective pieces definitely seem to stir something in our readers. And I'm thankful for that.

These are particularly popular;

"Moments"

"Golden Days"

"So You Want to be a Pilot?"

To everyone who has supported this aviation blog from the outset, thank you. From the team at 'Australian Aviation' magazine and the lads at 'Plane Crazy Down Under' to Karlene Pettit and David Parker Brown in the United States. Without their guidance, this internet infant never would have been able to get this website off the ground. Thank you all so much.

That's all for now although the conclusion to "Boeing 737. The Next Generation." will be coming soon.

Cheers,

Owen

                        "Well Chosen Words." (Part One)

The value of pre-flight preparation can never be overstated. The attention to detail before entering the cockpit often dictates the standard of the flight that follows. Within this vast array of activities ranging from flight planning to fuel management exists one critical, but often forgotten task; the verbal briefing.

The Little Things.

Many complex tasks and creations are comprised of numerous smaller items at their core and flying an aeroplane is no different. What appears an overwhelming task of co-ordination and orientation to the layman is actually the culmination of numerous components coming together in a careful methodical fashion. Omission of a single item alone may not be particularly significant, but it can contribute to a snow-balling effect with far more severe consequences. Hence, attention to detail and self-discipline are vital qualities in all aviators.

Executing a flight in an efficient fashion can be assisted greatly by catering for contingencies before they ever eventuate. This might entail carrying enough fuel to divert to an alternate aerodrome, or considering a plan of action in the event of an engine failure. Whatever the contingency may be, the ability to weigh up options and devise a strategy before the event ever occurs is of an immense amount of benefit. Inevitably, when things fail to go as planned, the workload and pressure in the cockpit mount up. If not prepared, the new plan must be hatched on the run with a myriad of other tasks eroding the thought processes. It’s a tough situation.

Having a plan etched out in advance can be of enormous value in these situations. The plan doesn’t necessarily need to be complex or long-winded, in fact to the contrary, the simpler the better. And while complex procedures can be designed to extract a multi-crew airliner following an engine failure after take-off amongst hazardous terrain, a verbal self-brief before take-off can be equally valuable to the private pilot in his ‘single’. A few timely words can make all the difference when the chips are down.

Keeping it Simple.

I am sure we have all heard pilots on the radio that love the sound of their own voices. Void of radio etiquette, they ramble on, jamming up the frequency. The fact is that communication is about quality, not quantity and this is a prime consideration when we first consider what needs to be said in a verbal briefing. Whether acting as part of a crew, or flying solo, an overly long briefing often fails to deliver the results. People tune out and the few vital facts can be lost in the background hash of a boring briefing.

The purpose of the briefing is to revisit the key points relating to the upcoming critical phase of flight. Whether before take-off or prior to commencing descent, the briefing serves to rekindle those key numbers and details that we may have to recall in the heat of the moment. It also allows an opportunity to check that the ‘house is in order’ with navigation aids tuned, the QNH set and so on. For ease of execution, the briefing should ideally be logical in its format; discuss the items in the order that you anticipate they will occur. This permits an easy resumption of the brief in the case of interruption too, although it’s always worthwhile to ‘back up’ a few stages to guard against omissions.

As discussed, over-briefing can be as equally useless as not briefing at all. In fact, it can create time pressure and lead people to talking when they should be flying. Always remember, AVIATE-NAVIGATE-COMMUNICATE. As such, not every phase of flight needs to be spoken about. Generally, the two most critical phases of flight are the departure and the 'approach and landing'. In both instances, there are actions to be considered should the planned manoeuvre suffer a change, such as an engine failure or a possible runway incursion necessitating a go-around.

The key to an effective briefing is to keep it as relevant and as simple as possible. There is no need to re-iterate standard procedures or use fancy grammar. Keep to the facts that you want in your mind at minimum notice and shelve anything that is non-essential.

Say What?

The content of a briefing can be varied depending on so many factors. It may be a multi-crew flight deck or a solo exercise, the flight maybe a VFR single, or an IFR twin. As such, no one text can be definitive and the pilot, aircraft and standard operating procedures will be the ultimate determinants. To that end, while the content needs to be tailored to the operation, however the principles of simplicity and relevance remain the same.

Threat management is a bit of a ‘catch-cry’ these days, but it highlights the numerous potential traps that pilots face and are not limited to the operation of the aircraft. Threats may be Notices to Airman (NOTAMs), aircraft serviceability, specific aerodrome procedures, significant terrain or even birds migrating at dusk. The list is endless, but for briefing the list should be limited to the particular threats for this phase of flight. Considering the potential threats is always a good place to start a briefing. From here, evolve the briefing as events will unfold.

Pre departure, it is worth briefing before engine start if possible. The background noise of the engine and the ticking by of time and fuel has not yet been introduced into the cockpit. Following the consideration of threats, confirm the ATIS and check that the QNH is set correctly. This will also provide an opportunity to assess the wind and weather and its impact on take-off technique and a return to land if needed. The taxi route may be complex or infringed by obstacles or active runways and this may need to be considered.

Next the take-off can be discussed, particularly if a short field technique or different flap setting is to be used. Does the terrain play a role in your departure? More complex aircraft may have specific take-off data and ‘V Speeds’ to review at this point. For the airborne component, consider the departure track, navigation aids and the first assigned altitude. Also, a final check of flight planned fuel against what you actually have on board is well worthwhile.

Next.......

                       Check back soon for the conclusion of "Well Chosen Words."

             "Boeing 737. The Next Generation." (Part One)

Somewhere across the globe a Boeing 737 takes off or lands every 5 seconds and over 1200 of their compatriots are aloft at any given time. With the 7000th aircraft rolled out in December 2011, the 737 has truly brought the term ‘prolific’ to airliner production and considering the maiden flight of the 737-100 took place in 1967, it is quite appropriate that the latest metamorphism be dubbed the “Next Generation”.
 
With its title clipped to the more easily handled, “NG”, the ‘next generation’ covers the -600 through to the -900 series of the 737. Of Boeing’s latest offering the 700 and larger 800s have gone on to dominate the skies, while the ‘Max’ is still yet to come. The NGs predecessors, the -200, -300 and -400 had provided the backbone of short haul travel in a very similar way. Whilst the number of earlier models is ever dwindling, they have gone on to be referred to as ‘The Classics’ as they reflect a last bridge between the analogue and digital flight deck. Whilst a highly visible transition, the clocks and dials are but one area of many in which the Classic has been superseded.

737 Next Generation Development:
 
The 737NG program was launched in 1993 under the title of 737-X. Boeing recognized the time-tested qualities of the type, but needed to bring the efficiency of new technology and systems to its most enduring machine. Fundamentally, the 737-X was to fly higher, farther, faster and more fuel efficiently than its predecessor without evolving into a new machine requiring a new designator and certification. A challenging task to say the least.
 
Much of the efficiency revolved around the redesigned wing. With 25% more total surface area and potentially 30% more fuel capacity, the new wing has much to offer. Boasting a higher span than the Classic, the new wing is a more swept with a constant angle of sweep and double-slotted continuous span flaps. Gone is the double swept leading edge and characteristic ‘kink’ of the earlier wing. Similarly, there have been changes to the leading and trailing edge flaps that have resulted in weight saving as well as aerodynamic efficiency. For all of the improvements to the aerofoil and lift augmentation devices, the most visible change to the wing and the aircraft generally, is the emergence of blended winglets on the 737.
 
The smooth, upward sweeping fairings at the tips stand a prodigious 2.4 metres and increase the span by a metre and a half. Simply put, the winglets benefit the aircraft through the reduction of induced drag and consequently improved operational and economic performance. Whilst yielding an impressive 4% saving in mission block fuel, the winglets also increase the 800s range by over 100nm. (Source: Boeing) Improved performance out of ‘hot, high and humid’ airfields is another advantage of the blended winglet. In fact, this aerodynamic device has proved so successful that it is now being retrofitted to 757s as well as 737s.

                                                          The Flight Deck of the Boeing 737-800.

 
The NG also sees the introduction of GPS to the 737 navigation system. Previously only equipped with dual Inertial Reference Systems (IRSs), the system relied upon ‘updates’ from ground based VORs and DMEs to continually refine the aircraft’s present position. Without such updates, the pictorial presentation on the map display could be inaccurate requiring the crew to heavily rely on ‘raw data’ from conventional radio navigation aids. GPS provides a far more consistently accurate map display for the crew and allows for more integration of the aircraft’s Lateral Navigation (LNAV) and Vertical Navigation (VNAV) systems. Additionally, the NG is equipped with a Predictive Windshear Warning and Enhanced Ground Proximity Warning System (EGPWS). This ‘forward-looking’ form of the original GPWS provides improved terrain clearance by such mechanisms as Terrain Clearance Floor, Look Ahead and Runway Clearance Floor algorythms.
 
Efficiency and costs savings can also be achieved on the ground. Production line improvements saw the final assembly of a 737NG in a record-breaking 11 days in 2005. On the maintenance side, the NG was developed with an eye to reducing airframe maintenance costs by 15%. Comprised of significantly less parts than the Classic, the NG was also designed with far more ‘ease of access’ for maintenance crews. Redesigned leading edges, landing gear, electronics, APU and the 15% more efficient CFM56-7 engines all contributed to the bottom line. In conjunction with improved maintenance documents, corrosion prevention and extended scheduled maintenance intervals, the 737NG has won the battle of the dollar over its forerunner.

On the flight deck, the 737NG strongly resembles its twin-engined big brother, the Boeing 777. The panel is dominated by the presence of 6 LCD panels arranged side by side, replacing the combination of EFIS and analogue that was found on the Classic. For the pilots, this means a degree of modification of their instrument scan from the vertical to the horizontal. The flight deck was designed in response to the demand by operators that a new type endorsement not be needed. As a consequence, the overhead panel closely resembles the Classic with its array of toggle switches and dials, though the operation of the system behind the switch may well be different.

                     A QANTAS Boeing 737-800 awaits its take-off clearance as another 737NG comes 'over the fence'.

 
As for achieving higher, faster, farther and more fuel efficient performance; Boeing delivered. The NG possesses greater range by more than 400nm over the earlier model, whilst topping out at FL410 (41,000 feet) as opposed to the Classic ceiling of FL370 (37,000 feet). With a typical cruise speed of 0.78M and a sprint capability to 0.82M, the NG draws away from the Classic’s average cruise of 0.745M, whilst all the while burning less fuel. Furthermore, depending on the cabin configuration, the -800 can achieve all of this while carrying around 40 more passengers than its predecessor. From humble beginnings as the 737-100 nearly 40 years ago, the 737 has kept pace with the times through ongoing development and improvement. The 737NG is no exception.
 
Technologically, some 737 NGs can be equipped with a ‘Head-Up Guidance System’ or ‘HGS’. The HGS 4000 system features a transparent drop-down screen in front of the Captain on which is projected an array of flight information, allowing the pilot to operate in lower visibility situations than would otherwise be possible. Head-Up Display (HUD) technology has been available for years on military aircraft and Alaska Airlines started flying HUD on their 727s back in the mid-80s and all of their 737-400s are equipped with the technology.
 
Some airlines have opted for the Vertical Situation Display (VSD) on their aircraft. The VSD displays the current and predicted flight path of the aircraft and indicates potential conflicts with terrain. The VSD is designed to enhance situational awareness on the flight deck and is yet another way in which the Next Generation is offering advances over its predecessor......

Check back later this week for the conclusion to "Boeing 737. The Next Generation."